Artificial intelligence systems may now be consuming more water each year than the world’s total bottled water use, while producing a carbon footprint comparable to that of New York City, according to a new peer-reviewed study published in 2025. The research, which highlights the environmental costs associated with AI, comes at a time when global demand for AI services is accelerating rapidly.
The study, titled “The carbon and water footprints of data centres and what this could mean for artificial intelligence,” was led by Dutch researcher Alex de Vries-Gao. It focuses on the data centres powering large-scale AI models and applications. Due to the lack of clear distinctions between AI and non-AI workloads in the environmental disclosures of major technology companies, the researchers relied on estimates derived from emissions data, water use benchmarks, and sustainability reports from companies including Google, Meta, and Amazon.
Based on multiple modelling approaches, the study estimates that AI systems could be responsible for between 32.6 and 79.7 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions in 2025. This level of emissions is roughly equivalent to the annual carbon footprint of New York City, one of the highest-emitting urban centres globally. The findings regarding water use are even more striking, with AI-related data centre operations projected to consume between 312.5 and 764.6 billion litres of water annually, a figure that exceeds global bottled water consumption each year.
The research challenges the common assumption that training large models is the main environmental burden of AI. Instead, it identifies AI inference—the continuous computation required to answer user queries, generate images, and run virtual assistants—as the dominant driver of energy and water use. The study argues that efficiency gains in data centres are being outpaced by rising demand, turning AI into a growing environmental and water security concern that can no longer be overlooked.
This research underscores the urgent need for a reevaluation of sustainability practices within the AI industry. As AI technologies proliferate and their applications expand across sectors, the environmental implications are becoming increasingly pronounced. Policymakers and industry leaders may need to consider regulatory measures and sustainability initiatives to mitigate the impact of AI on natural resources.
With the demand for AI advancements expected to continue its upward trajectory, the findings of this study serve as a stark reminder of the potential ecological consequences. The challenge will be balancing the pursuit of innovation in AI with a commitment to environmental stewardship, ensuring that technological growth does not come at the expense of the planet’s vital resources.
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